Sources & Citations
Evidence data was compiled from the following sources. Guideline recommendations and RCT counts are approximate and reflect the literature as of early 2025.
Note: The absence of RCT evidence does not mean a modality is ineffective — it may reflect epistemological differences, practical barriers to studying long-term treatments, or simply that research has not yet been conducted.
197 modality sources (20 guidelines, 177 research). 174 philosophy sources. 93 controversy references. 179 directly cited by modalities.
Clinical Practice Guidelines
apa-div12
APA Division 12. Research-Supported Psychological Treatments. Tolin et al. (2015) / Chambless & Hollon (1998) criteria.
https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/ apa-bpd
APA. (2001). Practice Guideline for Treatment of Patients with BPD.
https://psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363 apa-ptsd
APA. (2017). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults.
https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline apa-multi
APA. (2017). Multicultural Guidelines: An Ecological Approach.
https://www.apa.org/about/policy/multicultural-guidelines fda-mdma2024
FDA. (2024). FDA declines to approve midomafetamine (MDMA) for PTSD; advisory committee cited methodological concerns.
https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-declines-approve-midomafetamine-capsules-post-traumatic-stress-disorder nice-ocd
NICE. (2005, updated 2013). OCD and body dysmorphic disorder (CG31).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg31 nice-bpd
NICE. (2009). Borderline personality disorder (CG78).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg78 nice-anx
NICE. (2011, updated 2020). Generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in adults (CG113).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg113 nice-conduct
NICE. (2013). Antisocial behaviour and conduct disorders in children (CG158).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg158 nice-psychosis
NICE. (2014). Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults (CG178).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178 nice-ed
NICE. (2017). Eating disorders: recognition and treatment (NG69).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng69 nice-ptsd
NICE. (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder (NG116).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116 nice-dep
NICE. (2022). Depression in adults: treatment and management (NG222).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng222 va-ptsd2023
VA/DoD. (2023). Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of PTSD and ASD.
https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/mh/ptsd/ who-ptsd
WHO. (2013). Guidelines for the management of conditions specifically related to stress.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241505406 who-mhgap2023
WHO. (2023). Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) guideline, 3rd ed.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240084278 who-ppt
WHO. Positive Psychotherapy recognized as cross-cultural therapeutic method.
https://www.wapp.org who-pfa
WHO. (2011). Psychological First Aid: Guide for Field Workers.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241548205 nice-selfharm
NICE. (2022). Self-harm: Assessment, management and preventing recurrence (NG225).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng225 Meta-Analyses & Research Reviews
aalbers2017
Aalbers, S., et al. (2017). Music therapy for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004517.pub3 abbass2012
Abbass, A.A., et al. (2012). ISTDP: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 20(2), 97-108.
https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229.2012.677347 abbass2014
Abbass, A.A., et al. (2014). Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004687.pub4 adler2021
Adler, S.P., et al. (2021). Clinical hypnosis for chronic pain: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 69(3), 279-309.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2020.100219 alexander2013
Alexander, J.F. & Parsons, B.V. (2013). Functional Family Therapy: Clinical Model. Routledge.
https://www.routledge.com/Functional-Family-Therapy/Alexander-Waldron-Robbins-Neeb/p/book/9781138514867 bateman2009
Bateman, A. & Fonagy, P. (2009). RCT of outpatient MBT vs structured clinical management for BPD. AJP, 166(12), 1355-1364.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040539 berne1964
Berne, E. (1964). Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships. Grove Press.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/55068/games-people-play-by-eric-berne-md/ boss1979
Boss, M. (1979). Existential Foundations of Medicine and Psychology. Jason Aronson.
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Bowen, S., et al. (2014). Relative efficacy of MBRP vs relapse prevention and treatment as usual. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(5), 547-556.
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Brom, D., et al. (2017). Somatic Experiencing for PTSD: A randomized controlled outcome study. JTS, 30(3), 304-312.
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Burlingame, G.M., et al. (2016). Cohesion in group therapy: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy, 53(4), 351-363.
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Carlson, J., et al. (2006). Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice. APA.
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Chen, Y.R., et al. (2014). Efficacy of EMDR for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 55, 18-28.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.02.004 clarkin2007
Clarkin, J.F., et al. (2007). Evaluating three treatments for BPD. AJP, 164(6), 922-928.
https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.922 clinton2006
Clinton, A. (2006). AIT: Advanced Integrative Therapy. In Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Crown House Publishing.
https://aitinstitute.org cloitre2010
Cloitre, M., et al. (2010). Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: An RCT (STAIR/NST). AJP, 167(8), 915-924.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081247 comstock2008
Comstock, D.L., et al. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and social justice competencies. JCD, 86(3), 279-287.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00625.x cuijpers2011
Cuijpers, P., et al. (2011). IPT for depression: A meta-analysis. AJP, 168(6), 581-592.
https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 cuijpers2019
Cuijpers, P., et al. (2019). A meta-analysis of CBT for adult depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 64(5), 291-301.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101786 david2018
David, D., et al. (2018). Meta-analysis of REBT efficacy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 304-318.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22514 davis2021
Davis, A.K., et al. (2021). Psilocybin-assisted therapy for MDD: RCT. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(5), 481-489.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.3285 driessen2015
Driessen, E., et al. (2015). Efficacy of STPP for depression: A meta-analysis update. Clinical Psychology Review, 42, 1-15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.07.004 ecker2012
Ecker, B., et al. (2012). Unlocking the Emotional Brain. Routledge.
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Ekers, D., et al. (2014). Behavioural activation for depression: meta-analysis update. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e100100.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0100100 elliott2013
Elliott, R., et al. (2013). Research on humanistic-experiential psychotherapies. In Lambert (Ed.), Handbook of Psychotherapy (6th ed.).
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118133880.hop205004 epstein1995
Epstein, M. (1995). Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. Basic Books.
https://www.basicbooks.com/titles/mark-epstein/thoughts-without-a-thinker/9780465085859/ fosha2000
Fosha, D. (2000). The Transforming Power of Affect: A Model for Accelerated Change. Basic Books.
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Gendlin, E.T. (1996). Focusing-Oriented Psychotherapy: A Manual of the Experiential Method. Guilford Press.
https://www.guilford.com/books/Focusing-Oriented-Psychotherapy/Eugene-Gendlin/9781572300170 gingerich2013
Gingerich, W.J. & Peterson, L.T. (2013). Effectiveness of SFBT: A systematic review. RSWP, 23(3), 266-283.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731512470859 gloster2020
Gloster, A.T., et al. (2020). Empirical status of ACT: A review of meta-analyses. JCBS, 18, 181-192.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144720301307 goldberg2018
Goldberg, S.B., et al. (2018). Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 52-60.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.011 goldsby2017
Goldsby, T.L., et al. (2017). Effects of singing bowl sound meditation on mood, tension, and well-being. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alt Medicine, 22(3), 401-406.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.12.004 goodwin2022
Goodwin, G.M., et al. (2022). Single-dose psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. NEJM, 387(18), 1637-1648.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2206443 gorman2021
Gorman, I., et al. (2021). Psychedelic harm reduction and integration: A transtheoretical model for clinical practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 645246.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.645246 gottman2015
Gottman, J.M. & Silver, N. (2015). The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work (rev. ed.). Harmony Books.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/86712/the-seven-principles-for-making-marriage-work-by-john-gottman-phd/ gottman1999
Gottman, J.M. (1999). The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work. Harmony Books.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/86712/the-seven-principles-for-making-marriage-work-by-john-gottman-phd/ grof1988
Grof, S. (1988). The Adventure of Self-Discovery. SUNY Press.
https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Adventure-of-Self-Discovery grossman2023
Grossman, P. (2023). Fundamental challenges to the polyvagal theory. Biological Psychology, 180, 108589.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108589 haley1976
Haley, J. (1976). Problem-Solving Therapy. Jossey-Bass.
https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Problem+Solving+Therapy-p-9781555423629 hendricks1996
Hendricks, M.N. (1996). Experiencing level as a therapeutic variable. Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies, 13(2), 59-72.
https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/820445.Focusing_Oriented_Experiential_Psychotherapy hendricks2000
Hendricks, M.N. (2000). Research basis for focusing. In Cain & Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of Research.
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Hendricks, M.N. (2001). Focusing-oriented/experiential psychotherapy. In Cain & Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of Research. APA.
https://doi.org/10.1037/10439-017 imago1988
Hendrix, H. (1988). Getting the Love You Want: A Guide for Couples. Henry Holt.
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Hildebrand, A., et al. (2017). Investigation of brainspotting effectiveness: RCT results. Trauma & Gewalt, 11(3).
https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22154 hodgdon2022
Hodgdon, H.B., et al. (2022). IFS therapy for PTSD: An RCT. JTS, 35(5), 1429-1439.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22858 jauhar2014
Jauhar, S., et al. (2014). CBT for symptoms of schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. BJP, 204(1), 20-29.
https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.116285 jobes2016
Jobes, D.A. (2016). Managing Suicidal Risk: A Collaborative Approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
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Johnson, S.M. (2019). Attachment Theory in Practice: EFT with Individuals, Couples, and Families. Guilford Press.
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Jones, C., et al. (2018). CBT vs other psychosocial treatments for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
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Kaplan, C. & Barker, G. (2020). Art therapy in mental health: A systematic review. Art Therapy, 37(4), 180-189.
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Keller, M.B., et al. (2000). A comparison of nefazodone, CBASP, and their combination for chronic depression. NEJM, 342(20), 1462-1470.
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Khoury, B., et al. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 763-771.
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Kip, K.E., et al. (2013). RCT of ART for combat-related PTSD. Military Medicine, 178(12), 1298-1309.
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Kipper, D.A. & Ritchie, T.D. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodramatic techniques: A meta-analysis. Group Dynamics, 7(1), 13-25.
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Kirby, J.N., et al. (2017). Meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778-792.
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Kishimoto, T., et al. (2016). Single-dose ketamine for depression: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 46(7), 1459-1472.
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Kitanishi, K. & Mori, A. (1995). Morita therapy: 1919 to 1995. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 49(5-6), 245-254.
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Heller, L. & LaPierre, A. (2012). Healing Developmental Trauma: How Early Trauma Affects Self-Regulation, Self-Image, and the Capacity for Relationship. North Atlantic Books.
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Sources cited for publicly documented incidents involving modalities, founders, and organizations.
[1]
Kowalczyk, L. (2018). Allegations of employee mistreatment roil renowned Brookline trauma center. The Boston Globe.
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Abcarian, R. (2018). Famed trauma therapist responds to allegations of bullying. Yahoo Lifestyle.
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