Sources & Citations
Evidence data was compiled from the following sources. Guideline recommendations and RCT counts are approximate and reflect the literature as of early 2025.
Note: The absence of RCT evidence does not mean a modality is ineffective — it may reflect epistemological differences, practical barriers to studying long-term treatments, or simply that research has not yet been conducted.
130 modality sources (17 guidelines, 113 research). 155 philosophy sources. 74 controversy references. 123 directly cited by modalities.
Clinical Practice Guidelines
apa-div12
APA Division 12. Research-Supported Psychological Treatments. Tolin et al. (2015) / Chambless & Hollon (1998) criteria.
https://div12.org/psychological-treatments/ apa-bpd
APA. (2001). Practice Guideline for Treatment of Patients with BPD.
No public link apa-ptsd
APA. (2017). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of PTSD in Adults.
https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline apa-multi
APA. (2017). Multicultural Guidelines: An Ecological Approach.
No public link fda-mdma2024
FDA. (2024). FDA declines to approve midomafetamine (MDMA) for PTSD; advisory committee cited methodological concerns.
No public link nice-ocd
NICE. (2005, updated 2013). OCD and body dysmorphic disorder (CG31).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg31 nice-bpd
NICE. (2009). Borderline personality disorder (CG78).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg78 nice-anx
NICE. (2011, updated 2020). Generalised anxiety disorder and panic disorder in adults (CG113).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg113 nice-conduct
NICE. (2013). Antisocial behaviour and conduct disorders in children (CG158).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg158 nice-psychosis
NICE. (2014). Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults (CG178).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178 nice-ed
NICE. (2017). Eating disorders: recognition and treatment (NG69).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng69 nice-ptsd
NICE. (2018). Post-traumatic stress disorder (NG116).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116 nice-dep
NICE. (2022). Depression in adults: treatment and management (NG222).
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng222 va-ptsd2023
VA/DoD. (2023). Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of PTSD and ASD.
https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/mh/ptsd/ who-ptsd
WHO. (2013). Guidelines for the management of conditions specifically related to stress.
No public link who-mhgap2023
WHO. (2023). Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) guideline, 3rd ed.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240084278 Meta-Analyses & Research Reviews
aalbers2017
Aalbers, S., et al. (2017). Music therapy for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
No public link abbass2012
Abbass, A.A., et al. (2012). ISTDP: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 20(2), 97-108.
No public link abbass2014
Abbass, A.A., et al. (2014). Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
No public link adler2021
Adler, S.P., et al. (2021). Clinical hypnosis for chronic pain: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 69(3), 279-309.
No public link alexander2013
Alexander, J.F. & Parsons, B.V. (2013). Functional Family Therapy: Clinical Model. Routledge.
No public link bateman2009
Bateman, A. & Fonagy, P. (2009). RCT of outpatient MBT vs structured clinical management for BPD. AJP, 166(12), 1355-1364.
No public link berne1964
Berne, E. (1964). Games People Play: The Psychology of Human Relationships. Grove Press.
No public link boss1979
Boss, M. (1979). Existential Foundations of Medicine and Psychology. Jason Aronson.
No public link bowen2014
Bowen, S., et al. (2014). Relative efficacy of MBRP vs relapse prevention and treatment as usual. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(5), 547-556.
No public link brom2017
Brom, D., et al. (2017). Somatic Experiencing for PTSD: A randomized controlled outcome study. JTS, 30(3), 304-312.
No public link burlingame2016
Burlingame, G.M., et al. (2016). Cohesion in group therapy: A meta-analysis. Psychotherapy, 53(4), 351-363.
No public link carlson2006
Carlson, J., et al. (2006). Adlerian Therapy: Theory and Practice. APA.
No public link chen2014
Chen, Y.R., et al. (2014). Efficacy of EMDR for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 55, 18-28.
No public link clarkin2007
Clarkin, J.F., et al. (2007). Evaluating three treatments for BPD. AJP, 164(6), 922-928.
No public link clinton2006
Clinton, A. (2006). AIT: Advanced Integrative Therapy. In Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Crown House Publishing.
No public link cloitre2010
Cloitre, M., et al. (2010). Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: An RCT (STAIR/NST). AJP, 167(8), 915-924.
No public link comstock2008
Comstock, D.L., et al. (2008). Relational-cultural theory: A framework for bridging relational, multicultural, and social justice competencies. JCD, 86(3), 279-287.
No public link cuijpers2011
Cuijpers, P., et al. (2011). IPT for depression: A meta-analysis. AJP, 168(6), 581-592.
No public link cuijpers2019
Cuijpers, P., et al. (2019). A meta-analysis of CBT for adult depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 64(5), 291-301.
No public link david2018
David, D., et al. (2018). Meta-analysis of REBT efficacy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(3), 304-318.
No public link davis2021
Davis, A.K., et al. (2021). Psilocybin-assisted therapy for MDD: RCT. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(5), 481-489.
No public link driessen2015
Driessen, E., et al. (2015). Efficacy of STPP for depression: A meta-analysis update. Clinical Psychology Review, 42, 1-15.
No public link ecker2012
Ecker, B., et al. (2012). Unlocking the Emotional Brain. Routledge.
No public link ekers2014
Ekers, D., et al. (2014). Behavioural activation for depression: meta-analysis update. PLoS ONE, 9(6), e100100.
No public link elliott2013
Elliott, R., et al. (2013). Research on humanistic-experiential psychotherapies. In Lambert (Ed.), Handbook of Psychotherapy (6th ed.).
No public link epstein1995
Epstein, M. (1995). Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. Basic Books.
No public link fosha2000
Fosha, D. (2000). The Transforming Power of Affect: A Model for Accelerated Change. Basic Books.
No public link gendlin1996
Gendlin, E.T. (1996). Focusing-Oriented Psychotherapy: A Manual of the Experiential Method. Guilford Press.
No public link gingerich2013
Gingerich, W.J. & Peterson, L.T. (2013). Effectiveness of SFBT: A systematic review. RSWP, 23(3), 266-283.
No public link gloster2020
Gloster, A.T., et al. (2020). Empirical status of ACT: A review of meta-analyses. JCBS, 18, 181-192.
No public link goldberg2018
Goldberg, S.B., et al. (2018). Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 59, 52-60.
No public link goldsby2017
Goldsby, T.L., et al. (2017). Effects of singing bowl sound meditation on mood, tension, and well-being. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alt Medicine, 22(3), 401-406.
No public link goodwin2022
Goodwin, G.M., et al. (2022). Single-dose psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression. NEJM, 387(18), 1637-1648.
No public link gorman2021
Gorman, I., et al. (2021). Psychedelic harm reduction and integration: A transtheoretical model for clinical practice. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 645246.
No public link gottman2015
Gottman, J.M. & Silver, N. (2015). The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work (rev. ed.). Harmony Books.
No public link gottman1999
Gottman, J.M. (1999). The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work. Harmony Books.
No public link grof1988
Grof, S. (1988). The Adventure of Self-Discovery. SUNY Press.
No public link grossman2023
Grossman, P. (2023). Fundamental challenges to the polyvagal theory. Biological Psychology, 180, 108589.
No public link haley1976
Haley, J. (1976). Problem-Solving Therapy. Jossey-Bass.
No public link hendricks1996
Hendricks, M.N. (1996). Experiencing level as a therapeutic variable. Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies, 13(2), 59-72.
No public link hendricks2000
Hendricks, M.N. (2000). Research basis for focusing. In Cain & Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of Research.
No public link hendricks2001
Hendricks, M.N. (2001). Focusing-oriented/experiential psychotherapy. In Cain & Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of Research. APA.
No public link imago1988
Hendrix, H. (1988). Getting the Love You Want: A Guide for Couples. Henry Holt.
No public link hildebrand2017
Hildebrand, A., et al. (2017). Investigation of brainspotting effectiveness: RCT results. Trauma & Gewalt, 11(3).
No public link hodgdon2022
Hodgdon, H.B., et al. (2022). IFS therapy for PTSD: An RCT. JTS, 35(5), 1429-1439.
No public link jauhar2014
Jauhar, S., et al. (2014). CBT for symptoms of schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. BJP, 204(1), 20-29.
No public link jobes2016
Jobes, D.A. (2016). Managing Suicidal Risk: A Collaborative Approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
No public link johnson2019
Johnson, S.M. (2019). Attachment Theory in Practice: EFT with Individuals, Couples, and Families. Guilford Press.
No public link jones2018
Jones, C., et al. (2018). CBT vs other psychosocial treatments for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
No public link kaplan2020
Kaplan, C. & Barker, G. (2020). Art therapy in mental health: A systematic review. Art Therapy, 37(4), 180-189.
No public link keller2000
Keller, M.B., et al. (2000). A comparison of nefazodone, CBASP, and their combination for chronic depression. NEJM, 342(20), 1462-1470.
No public link khoury2013
Khoury, B., et al. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 763-771.
No public link kip2013
Kip, K.E., et al. (2013). RCT of ART for combat-related PTSD. Military Medicine, 178(12), 1298-1309.
No public link kipper2003
Kipper, D.A. & Ritchie, T.D. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodramatic techniques: A meta-analysis. Group Dynamics, 7(1), 13-25.
No public link kirby2017
Kirby, J.N., et al. (2017). Meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778-792.
No public link kishimoto2016
Kishimoto, T., et al. (2016). Single-dose ketamine for depression: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 46(7), 1459-1472.
No public link kitanishi1995
Kitanishi, K. & Mori, A. (1995). Morita therapy: 1919 to 1995. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 49(5-6), 245-254.
No public link kuyken2016
Kuyken, W., et al. (2016). MBCT in prevention of depressive relapse: IPD meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(6), 565-574.
No public link lacan1966
Lacan, J. (1966/2006). Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English. Trans. B. Fink. Norton.
No public link lazarus1989
Lazarus, A.A. (1989). The Practice of Multimodal Therapy. Johns Hopkins University Press.
No public link leich2008
Leichsenring, F. & Rabung, S. (2008). Effectiveness of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. JAMA, 300(13), 1551-1565.
No public link leich2023
Leichsenring, F., et al. (2023). The status of psychodynamic psychotherapy as an EST — an umbrella review. World Psychiatry, 22(2), 286-304.
No public link lely2019
Lely, J.C.G., et al. (2019). Effectiveness of NET: A review. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1550344.
No public link lieberman2005
Lieberman, A.F., et al. (2005). CPP: 6-month follow-up of an RCT. JAACAP, 44(12), 1241-1248.
No public link litz2021
Litz, B.T., et al. (2021). A randomized clinical trial of adaptive disclosure, a brief exposure-based intervention for moral injury. Behavior Therapy, 52(4), 854-869.
No public link lowen1975
Lowen, A. (1975). Bioenergetics: The Revolutionary Therapy That Uses the Language of the Body. Penguin.
No public link lundahl2010
Lundahl, B.W., et al. (2010). A meta-analysis of motivational interviewing. Research on Social Work Practice, 20(2), 137-160.
No public link lynch2020
Lynch, T.R., et al. (2020). RO-DBT for refractory anorexia. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 141, 103922.
No public link manfield2017
Manfield, P., et al. (2017). Safety and efficacy of the Flash Technique: An RCT. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 11(3), 113-125.
No public link mccullough2000
McCullough, J.P. (2000). Treatment for Chronic Depression: CBASP. Guilford Press.
No public link minuchin1974
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and Family Therapy. Harvard University Press.
No public link mitchell2021
Mitchell, J.M., et al. (2021). MDMA-assisted therapy for severe PTSD: Phase 3 study. Nature Medicine, 27(6), 1025-1033.
No public link mitchell1988
Mitchell, S.A. (1988). Relational Concepts in Psychoanalysis: An Integration. Harvard University Press.
No public link morita1998
Morita, S. (1998). Morita Therapy and the True Nature of Anxiety-Based Disorders (Shinkeishitsu). Trans. A. Kondo. SUNY Press.
No public link najavits2002
Najavits, L.M. (2002). Seeking Safety: A Treatment Manual for PTSD and Substance Abuse. Guilford Press.
No public link norcross2005
Norcross, J.C. & Goldfried, M.R. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
No public link normann2018
Normann, N. & Morina, N. (2018). Efficacy of metacognitive therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2211.
No public link ogden2006
Ogden, P., Minton, K., & Pain, C. (2006). Trauma and the Body: A Sensorimotor Approach to Psychotherapy. W.W. Norton.
No public link pace2012
Pace, P. (2012). Lifespan Integration: Connecting Ego States through Time (5th ed.). Eirene Imprint.
No public link ray2015
Ray, D.C., et al. (2015). Child-centered play therapy outcome research: A meta-analysis. JCD, 93(1), 45-58.
No public link reich1945
Reich, W. (1945). Character Analysis (3rd ed.). Orgone Institute Press. (Original work published 1933)
No public link reichow2018
Reichow, B., et al. (2018). Early intensive behavioral intervention for autism. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
No public link roesler2013
Roesler, C. (2013). Evidence for effectiveness of Jungian psychotherapy. Behavioral Sciences, 3(4), 562-575.
No public link sakiris2019
Sakiris, N. & Berle, D. (2019). Unified Protocol meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 72, 101751.
No public link sanders2012
Sanders, M.R., et al. (2012). The Triple P system of parenting support: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(4), 337-357.
No public link seidler2018
Seidler, Z.E., Rice, S.M., Ogrodniczuk, J.S., Oliffe, J.L., & Dhillon, H.M. (2018). Engaging men in psychological treatment: A scoping review. American Journal of Men's Health, 12(6), 1882-1900.
No public link seikkula2006
Seikkula, J. & Arnkil, T.E. (2006). Dialogical Meetings in Social Networks. Routledge.
No public link shear2005
Shear, K., Frank, E., Houck, P.R., & Reynolds, C.F. (2005). Treatment of complicated grief: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 293(21), 2601-2608.
No public link shear2014
Shear, M.K., et al. (2014). Optimizing treatment of complicated grief: An RCT. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(12), 1287-1295.
No public link siegel2012
Siegel, D.J. (2012). The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
No public link stanley2012
Stanley, B. & Brown, G.K. (2012). Safety planning intervention: A brief intervention to mitigate suicide risk. Cognitive & Behavioral Practice, 19(2), 256-264.
No public link storebo2020
Storebø, O.J., et al. (2020). Psychological therapies for BPD. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
No public link stroebe1999
Stroebe, M. & Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224.
No public link szapocznik2012
Szapocznik, J., et al. (2012). Brief strategic family therapy for adolescent drug abuse. NIDA Treatment Manuals.
https://nida.nih.gov/publications/manuals/brief-strategic-family-therapy-bsft taylor2017
Taylor, C.D.J., et al. (2017). Effectiveness of schema therapy for personality disorders. BJCP, 56(1), 86-108.
No public link town2017
Town, J.M., et al. (2017). ISTDP: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Harvard Rev Psychiatry, 25(6), 280-290.
No public link vanderhartetal2006
Van der Hart, O., Nijenhuis, E.R.S., & Steele, K. (2006). The Haunted Self: Structural Dissociation and the Treatment of Chronic Traumatization. W.W. Norton.
No public link vanderstouwe2014
Van der Stouwe, T., et al. (2014). Effectiveness of MST: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(6), 468-481.
No public link vos2015
Vos, J., et al. (2015). Psychotherapy for meaning and purpose: A meta-analysis. Palliative & Supportive Care, 13(6), 1645-1668.
No public link wampold2015
Wampold, B.E. (2015). How important are the common factors in psychotherapy? An update. World Psychiatry, 14(3), 270-277.
No public link watkins2018
Watkins, J.G. & Barabasz, A. (2018). Ego State Therapy. In Clinical Hypnosis in Pain Therapy. Routledge.
No public link white1990
White, M. & Epston, D. (1990). Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends. Norton.
No public link wiebe2016
Wiebe, S.A. & Johnson, S.M. (2016). Review of research in EFT for couples. Family Process, 55(3), 390-407.
No public link worden2018
Worden, J.W. (2018). Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy: A Handbook for the Mental Health Practitioner (5th ed.). Springer.
No public link worell2003
Worell, J. & Remer, P. (2003). Feminist Perspectives in Therapy: Empowering Diverse Women (2nd ed.). Wiley.
No public link wubbolding2011
Wubbolding, R.E. (2011). Reality Therapy: Theories of Psychotherapy Series. APA.
No public link yalom2020
Yalom, I.D. & Leszcz, M. (2020). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy (6th ed.). Basic Books.
No public link heller2012
Heller, L. & LaPierre, A. (2012). Healing Developmental Trauma: How Early Trauma Affects Self-Regulation, Self-Image, and the Capacity for Relationship. North Atlantic Books.
No public link fairburn2009
Fairburn, C.G., et al. (2009). Transdiagnostic CBT for eating disorders: A randomized controlled trial. AJP, 166(3), 311-319.
No public link cuijpers2018
Cuijpers, P., et al. (2018). Problem-solving therapy for depression: A meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 48(S1), S272.
No public link christensen2004
Christensen, A., et al. (2004). Traditional versus integrative behavioral couple therapy for significantly and chronically distressed married couples. JCCP, 72(2), 176-191.
No public link sloan2018
Sloan, D.M., et al. (2018). Written exposure therapy vs CPT for PTSD: A randomized noninferiority trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(5), 453-461.
No public link razvi2022
Razvi, S. et al. (2022). Psychedelic Somatic Interactional Psychotherapy (PSIP): A comprehensive theory paper. Journal of Psychedelic Psychiatry.
https://www.psychedelicsomatic.org/white-paper Philosophy Sources
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Controversy References
Sources cited for publicly documented incidents involving modalities, founders, and organizations.
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